Chapter 6: Transformations of the Roman World

Pre-reading

A. Skim and scan the following passage and answer the following questions.

1. Why is the Middle Ages said to begin with the transformations of the Roman world ?

2. What characteristics of Christianity enabled it to grow and ultimately to triumph?

3. What would it mean if a historian said that the Romans became Christians and the Christians became Romans?

4. What were the historical backgrounds of the birth of the West Europe ?

5. What were the historical backgrounds of the birth of the Byzantine Empire ?

6. What were the historical backgrounds of the birth and growth of Islam?

7. Why do we say that Merovingian kings and queens laid the foundations for the formation of much of Europe ?

Reading

Middle Ages refer to period in the history of Europe that lasted from about ad 350 to about 1450. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, the western half of the Roman Empire began to fragment into smaller, weaker kingdoms. By the end of the Middle Ages, many modern European states had taken shape. During this time, the precursors of many modern institutions, such as universities and bodies of representative government, were created.

No single event ended the ancient world and began the Middle Ages. In fact, no one who lived in what is now called the Middle Ages ever thought of themselves as living in it. In the Middle Ages, people thought they were living in modern times, just as people do today.

The term  Middle Ages  was invented by people during the Renaissance, a period of cultural and literary change in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. The term was not meant as a compliment. During the Renaissance, people thought that their own age and the time of ancient Greece and Rome were advanced and civilized. They called the period between themselves and the ancient world "the Middle Age." The adjective medieval comes from the Latin words for this term, medium (middle) and aevum (age). Historians adopted this term even though it was originally meant to belittle the period. Since the Middle Ages covers such a large span of time, historians divided it into three parts: the Early Middle Ages, lasting from about 350 to about 1050; the High Middle Ages, lasting from about 1050 to about 1300; and the Late Middle Ages, lasting from about 1300 to about 1450. Historians used to believe that most of the cultural, economic, and political achievements of the Middle Ages occurred in the second period, and because of this they called that period “High.” Only recently, as the accomplishments of the Early and Late Middle Ages have gained appreciation, has this term fallen into disuse. Today, historians often use a more neutral name, the Central Middle Ages.

The institutions of the Middle Ages developed from those of the Roman Empire, which by 200 included much of what is now western Europe, Turkey , and North Africa . Historians once thought that the Middle Ages began with the fall of the Roman Empire, but there was no decisive moment at which the Roman Empire fell or the Middle Ages began. Today historians talk instead about the transformations of the Roman world. This period of change, usually measured from about 350 to 600, is often called Late Antiquity.

The changes that occurred in the Roman Empire during Late Antiquity were the result of problems that had been building for some time. By the beginning of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire had grown so large that no one emperor could control and protect it all in times of crisis. This became clear when the empire was attacked on two fronts: from the east by the Persians and from the north by the Germans. War continued for nearly the entire century, but in the end, the Romans beat back the invaders. In the process, however, they changed many of their institutions to better serve the army. The army itself, which had been made up of mobile troops that were deployed to different regions as needed, was now made a standing force stationed at the borders of the empire. Farmers, craftsmen, and other suppliers were forced to help provision the troops, and the power of the army grew. The army took control over the empire and the emperors, assassinating and replacing them at will.

This situation lasted until the accession in 284 of the emperor Diocletian, who restored control over the military. He realized that the empire could not be controlled by one man and so appointed a co-emperor to rule with him. This effectively split the empire into two parts, an eastern half and a western half, each with its own emperor. This division became even more pronounced in the early 4th century when the emperor Constantine the Great, who had deposed his co-emperor to become sole ruler, moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the eastern city of Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey). The co-emperor system was restored at the end of the 4th century, and western emperors again ruled their half. However, Constantinople had become the real capital of the empire.

This split in imperial rule brought about a change in culture as well. The eastern half of the empire was heavily influenced by the culture and language of Greece , and the Greek-speaking east grew further and further apart from the Latin-speaking West. Thus, the invasions of the 3rd century first militarized and then divided the empire.

The rise of Christianity marks a fundamental break with the dominant values of the Greco-Roman world. Christian views of God, human beings, and the world were quite different from those the Greeks and Romans. To understand the rise of Christianity, we must first examine the religious environment of the Roman world and the Jewish background of the emergence of Christianity.

Augustus had taken a number of steps to revive the Roman state religion, which had declined during the turmoil of the late Republic. The official state religion focused on the worship of a pantheon of gods and goddesses. Observance of proper ritual by state priests theoretically established the proper relationship between Romans and the gods and guaranteed security, peace, and prosperity. The polytheistic ( 信奉多神教的 ) Romans were extremely tolerant of other religions. The Romans allowed the worship of native gods and goddesses throughout their provinces and even adopted some of the local gods. In addition, the imperial cult ( 宗教崇拜 ) of Rome and Augustus was developed to bolster ( 鼓励 ) support for the emperors. After Augustus, deceased ( 已故的 ) emperors deified ( 被神化的 ) by the Roman senate were included in the official imperial cult.

The desire for a more emotional spiritual experience led many people to the mystery religions of the Hellenistic east, which flooded into the western Roman world during the Early Empire. The mystery religions offered secret teachings that promised their followers advantages unavailable through Roman religion: an entry into a higher world of reality and the promise of future life superior to the present one. They also featured elaborate rituals ( 宗教仪式 ) with deep emotional appeal ( 吸引力 ). By participating in their ceremonies and performing their rites ( 仪式 ), an adherent ( 信徒 ) could achieve communion ( 交流 ) with spiritual beings and undergo purification ( 净化 ) that opened the door to life after death.

Among the mystery cults popular in the Roman world, perhaps the most important was Mithraism. Mithras was the chief agent of the supreme god of light in Persian Zoroastrianism ( 拜火教 ). In the Roman world, Mithras came to be identified with the sun god and was known by his Roman title of the Unconquered Sun. Mithraism had spread rapidly in Rome and the western provinces by the second century A.D. and was especially favored by soldiers, who viewed Mithras as their patron deity. Mithraists paid respect to the sun on the first day of the week (Sunday) , honored the memory of the sun's birthday around December 25, and celebrated ceremonial meals. All of these practices had parallels in Christianity.

In Hellenistic times, the Jews had been granted considerable independence by their rulers. Roman involvement with the Jews began in 63 B.C., and by A.D. 6, Judea had been made a province and placed under the direction of a Roman procurator ( 地方财政官 ). But unrest continued by divisions among the Jews themselves. The Sadducees stuck to Hebrew law, rejected personal immorality, and favored cooperation with the Romans. The Pharisees also stuck to Jewish ritual, and although they wanted Judea to be free from Roman control, they did not want to achieve this goal by violence. The Essenes , like many other Jews, desired freedom of Israel from oppression, establishing a true paradise on earth. The Zealots , who were militant extremists, advocated the violent overthrow of Roman rule. A Jewish revolt in A.D. 66 was crushed by the Romans four years later. The Romans destroyed the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and dominated Judea again.

Jesus Chris t (between 8 and 4  bc - ad 29?), the central figure of Christianity, was born in Judea . Christians traditionally regard Jesus as the incarnate ( 以人形出现的 ) Son of God, and as having been divinely conceived by Mary, the wife of Joseph, a carpenter of Nazareth. The name Jesus is derived from a Greek translation of the Hebrew name Joshua. The title Christ is derived from the Greek christos, or Messiah ( 救世主 ). “Christ” was used by Jesus' early followers, who regarded him as the promised deliverer of Israel and later was made part of Jesus' proper name by the church, which regards him as the redeemer ( 救世主 ) of all humanity.

Jesus began his public preaching in the mist of the confusion ( 混乱 ) and conflict in Judea. He traveled to neighboring towns and villages, spreading the idea of the kingdom of God . When the sick and weak asked help from him he sought to heal them by divine power. He stressed the infinite love of God for the humble and weak, and he promised pardon and eternal life in heaven to the most hardened sinners, as long as their repentance ( 忏悔 ) was sincere. Jesus' emphasis on moral sincerity rather than strict adherence to religious ritual incurred the enmity ( 敌意 ) of the Pharisees, who feared that his teachings might lead to disregard for the authority of the Law. Others feared that Jesus' activities and followers might cause the Roman authorities to be against any restoration of the Davidic monarchy ( 君主政体 ). To the Roman authorities of Palestine and their local allies, Jesus was a potential revolutionary who might transform Jewish expectations of a messianic ( 救世主的 ) kingdom into a revolt against Rome. Finding himself condemned openly on many sides, Jesus was given over to the Roman authorities. The procurator ( 检察官 ) ordered his crucifixion ( 在十字架上钉死的刑罚 ). That did not solve the problem. A few loyal followers of Jesus spread the story that Jesus had overcome death, had be resurrected ( 复活 ), and had then ascended into heaven. The belief in Jesus' resurrection became an important principle of Christian doctrine ( 教义 ). Jesus was now regarded as the Messiah who would return and begin the kingdom of God on earth.

Jesus' Ministry

Christianity began as a religious movement within Judaism and was viewed that way by Roman authorities for many decades. After Jesus' death, his follower Paul began to preach and to convert non-Jews outside Palestine and transformed Christianity from a Jewish sect into a broader religious movement . Christianity spread in the cities of the empire, first in the east and later in the west. By the 3rd century, many Roman cities had Christian communities, and the Christian church had developed a rudimentary organization of church officials. The highest officials were the bishops, and under them were the priests. Peter , another follower of Jesus, found the Christian church at Rome and became the first bishop of Rome or Pope ( 罗马教皇 ).

The Christians of the Roman Empire suffered some persecution, as did Jews. At the beginning of the 4th century, however, Constantine declared toleration for all religions, and he himself favored Christianity. Thereafter many people in the empire became Christians, and in 391 Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire .

In the view of the Christians of the time, the official adoption of Christianity meant that the old pagan gods had been defeated. Christians considered these gods demons and the traditional town festivals demonic. Christians recognized different sources of holy power. In their view, certain special men and women—sometimes living, sometimes dead—had in them, by God's grace, the power of God. These were the saints.

Saints were very important in Late Antiquity. They were considered both models of virtue and powerful miracle workers. One of the most well-known saints of the period was Saint Anthony. Anthony gave away all his possessions and left his hometown in Egypt to live alone in the desert and pray. Anthony was one of the first Christian monks. The word monk comes from a term meaning "alone." Gradually Anthony attracted followers, and he eventually became the center of a whole community of monks who wished to live as he did. This community was not organized well enough to be called a monastery (a permanent residence of a group of monks), but it was the precursor of such institutions. There were female saints as well. Stories circulated about Saint Mary of Egypt , for example, who lived for years on a few loaves of bread and spent her time in repentance and prayer.

Saints remained special even after they died, and their bones and other remains were venerated as relics. Pious people often built churches or chapels over the tombs of saints. Saints' remains were moved frequently. For example, Saint Ambrose, the bishop of Milan , brought the relics of two saints into his own church and put them under the altar, the focal point of Christian worship. In this way, he allied himself and succeeding bishops of Milan with the power of those saints.

Because Christianity focused more on the eternal salvation or damnation that occurred after death than on the events of the everyday world, it changed the things that people valued. For example, worldly possessions became less important. From the 3rd through the 5th century, churchmen developed these ideas and other Christian doctrines in sermons, treatises, and biblical commentaries, and they also established a standardized body of Christian teaching. Some of these authors came to be known as Fathers of the Church, and their writings are called patristic literature. Perhaps the most important and influential of them was Saint Augustine , bishop of Hippo (near modern Annaba , Algeria ). His most famous book, The City of God (413-426), counsels Christians not to worry too much about the events of this world but to keep their minds focused on salvation and the afterlife—the heavenly city of God. Other churchmen did not always agree with Augustine. Christianity was understood and interpreted in many different ways in Late Antiquity. For example, churchmen argued frequently and sometimes violently about the nature of Christ and the nature of the Trinity (God the Father, Christ, and the Holy Spirit together). Augustine, whose view prevailed, said that Christ's godliness was equal to the Father's. But other Christians—known as Arians after the primary proponent of the teaching, Arius—thought that the Father's godhood was greater than that of the Son. Both sides believed that their salvation—their eternal life in Heaven—depended on accepting the right doctrine.

The variety of religious views in Late Antiquity mirrored the great variety of people in the Roman Empire , a variety that increased during the 4th and 5th centuries and transformed the empire politically. Beyond the borders patrolled by the Roman army were peoples whom the Romans called Germans. Although not biologically different from the Romans, they had a different culture—or rather, many different cultures. They lived in tribal groupings that were always in a state of change, breaking up and absorbing other groups. They fought with the Romans, but they also traded with them. Many Germans admired the Romans and adopted their habits and institutions. Many also adopted Christianity, although most of them became Arian Christians because Arian missionaries converted them. Military need led the Romans to incorporate German warriors into their army units. Other Germans were brought into the empire to settle in depopulated areas , and their children were recruited into the army. Beginning in the 4th century, army units of Germans led by their own commanders were welcomed into the empire to defend the Romans.

The German settlers were eventually assimilated into the empire, but there were also tensions with the native inhabitants. The Germans were like a migrant labor force: The Romans needed them, but they also resented them. In the 5th century a Germanic tribe called the Visigoths were asked to settle in the empire. They were being forced out of their homeland by the Huns, a nomadic tribe from Central Asia that was moving west. The Visigoths were allowed to enter the empire but were then ignored and left to starve. Their leader, Alaric I, marched his tribe to Rome , which he attacked and plundered. Eventually Alaric and his people settled in what is now southern France . Meanwhile, other Germanic tribes were entering the empire. By the end of the 5th century, the western half of the empire was under the control of various Germanic kings. In 476 the Western emperor was deposed and not replaced. After that, there was only one Roman emperor, and he remained at Constantinople .

Although Constantinople called itself the second Rome and the emperor there still called himself Roman, the eastern half of the empire changed so dramatically between 600 and 750 that historians call it by a different name: the Byzantine Empire . The most striking change was in the empire's size—the empire lost huge portions of territory to the Muslims. By 750 the Byzantine Empire consisted only of what is today Turkey , part of Greece , and bits of Italy . The Muslims had conquered all of the Middle East, Egypt , and North Africa . The Muslims, who practice the religion of Islam, were a new force in history. Their prophet and first leader was Muhammad, a trader in Arabia (now Saudi Arabia ) who turned from paganism to belief in one God, the same God that the Jews and Christians worshiped. Muhammad and his followers thought that God had communicated his final revelation to Muhammad. That made him God's last and most important prophet. God's revelation to Muhammad was written down and became the Islamic holy book, the Qur'an.

Muhammad first preached the word of God in his hometown of Mecca , and he converted a number of people there. However, he also made enemies at Mecca . When he was invited to go to the nearby town of Medina , he and his followers accepted, and they emigrated there in 622. This emigration is called the Hegira, and its date marks the year 1 of the Islamic calendar. At Medina , Muhammad converted many people to Islam, but the Muslims also clashed with nonbelieving Arabs in outright wars. Eventually Muhammad's fighters were successful, uniting most of Arabia under the religion of Islam. Under Muhammad's successors, the Muslims moved out of Arabia into new territories. By 750 their conquests stretched from Spain to India . Muhammad's successors, called caliphs, built their first capital city at Damascus , in Syria . There they discovered and adopted many Roman and Byzantine institutions. They minted coins modeled on those of the Byzantine Empire and hired former officials of Byzantine rulers. They also supported Arabic literature, which began to flower. Religious scholars wrote down stories of Muhammad's words and deeds. Poets wrote songs of love, celebrations of brave warriors, and witty satires. The Muslims did not normally mingle with those they conquered. They lived in fortified cities from which they collected taxes and imposed their rule. The Muslims tolerated Christians and Jews and allowed them to worship as they pleased, as long as they paid a tax for the privilege.

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